Establishment success of Brazil nut trees in smallholder Amazon forest restoration depends on site conditions and management

1. Forest landscape restoration (FLR) has gained momentum globally and guidance is needed to identify those species, sites planting methods that increase success. Incorporating native Non-Timber Product (NTFP) species in FLR approaches provides an opportunity simultaneously deliver ecological economic benefits. The Brazil nut tree one of the most valuable Amazonian NTFP could fulfil a cornerstone role Amazon FLR. However, factors defining establishment success within activities remain unknown. 2. Here, we evaluate effect management practices, site (pastures, agroforestry, secondary forest canopy gaps old growth forest) environmental conditions on (tree growth, survival fruit production) projects implemented by smallholders Peruvian Amazon. We performed field study at 25 1–38 years age, where conducted measurements 481 trees interviewed 21 smallholders. used mixed models drivers performance. 3. Twenty after planting, diameter forests was 38%, 34%, 24% higher than gaps, pastures, agroforestry sites, respectively. Survival rate similar for planted pastures forests, but 15–20% there 7–12% gaps. Fruit production 262% reproductive compared probability did not differ between sites. These results show are suitable trees. 4. In addition effects, also found significant effects practices. increased with application fire clearing weeding investments decreased potentially inefficient herbivore protection. lower further away from smallholders’ homes. substantial 5. Our findings suggest importance post-planting maintenance projects. Further, our shows evaluation past can guide future tropical landscapes.